Projects with a Drawing Pencil--part 2

PROJECTION SYSTEMS AND THEORETICAL DRAWINGS

Theoretical drawing systems include orthographic drawings, planometric drawings, isometric or parallel drawing systems, trimetric, and perspective.

These drawing systems are very useful particularly for architects and designers. They are usually used as presentation drawings for clients. The orthographic or the planometric system of drawing is probably the easiest to understand as this is just a flat representation of an object, usually from the front and is done to a scale. See the example of a pair of scissors, and pliers. Sometimes in these drawings, you will have tonal keys to give you the idea of plane recession, and form. The easiest way to go about producing one of these drawings is to place an object like a pair of scissors down on to a piece of paper and then draw around them. What you will have produced in this drawing is an outline of the object and that is what an orthographic projection is. To complete the drawing, observe, and draw in the rest of the detail of the object and then code it tonally or texturally accordingly.

ORTHOGRAPHIC OR ELEVATION PLAN

Orthographic drawings represent the object being drawn or designed as flat. They can represent the design as linked individual drawings from all sides. This is usually referred to as plan, front and side elevations.

They can best be described as representing a silhouette of an object on the picture plane from one side or the other of the plan. They show one face of the object and from that face the other faces can be planned and plotted.

This is technically referred to as the first angle projection. First introduced by a French military engineer, Monge, at the beginning of the 18th century, it was very quickly adopted.

Orthographic drawings represent the object being drawn, or the face of, and from that face the other faces can be planned and plotted.

A table, showing front, side and plan elevations.

The shape of an object from the front can be understood by placing it in a box or rectangle that relates to its proportions.

Front elevation -- Front -- Plan -- Side

EXERCISES

SHAPE AS A PLANOMETRIC PROJECTION

In this exercise tonal keys are used to give an understanding of planal recession and form.

Parallel diagonal lines pick up the front plane.

Flat tone is used to describe a flat plane down the edge of the pliers.

ISOMETRIC OR PARALLEL PROJECTIONS

To help engineers, architects and designers give a fuller three-dimensional under standing and impression of their ideas and

finished works, other methods of drawing were developed from orthographic projection. First came the isometric projection process, introduced by an English con -

temporary of Monge, Sir William Farish, which enabled all the faces of the front, side and plan to be joined together.

Using a specific angle from the 90 degrees angle creates these drawing systems. For instance, an isometric projection is always conceived by using an angle of 30 degrees as shown in the systematic series of examples.

Notice in this example we have created a chair by creating it in an Isometric projection. There is also a simple example of an isometric projection shown on the right.

In this example, notice how a block has been cut had a segment removed. One can quite clearly see that all the angles for this drawing are based on 30 degrees of a 90 degrees angle. Drawings based on this system were used in the aircraft industry to assemble aircraft, and they are used by interior and theatre designers as finished working drawings that the makers would work from.

1) Create two ninety-degree angles.

2) From those ninety angles create two thirty degree angles.

3) Using the same vertical create another two ninety degree angles.

4) Now create two more thirty-degree angles, and then place two between these angles to create what appears to be the side edges of a rectangular box.

5) At the two top corners of this rectangle create two more ninety-degree angles, and from those two angles create two thirty degree angles that will converge and meet creating the top of the rectangle.

6) One can now fill in the back of the box consistently using a thirty degree angle as seen with the dotted lines in this example.

One can also now use this rectangle or crate to plot an object within this projection system.

TRIMETRIC PROJECTIONS

Trimetric projections are very similar to isometric projections and are used for similar reasons. The difference being that the trimetric projection can present different orientations of a box or object on the same picture plane. Therefore, what we have are different degrees of orientation. This type of drawing is very useful as a diagrammatic drawing that is used to help you assemble or even take apart a piece of furniture or machinery. One usually sees these types of drawings in car manuals.

THE TRIMETRIC SYSTEM IN USE

Industrial designers use the trimetric system to 'crate' a form; that is, to put it in a box. The shape of the object is drawn on the front face of the box and then the form of the shape is projected back into the 'crate'. By encasing volume and form in this way, designers can visualize how their ideas will appear in reality.

PLANOMETRIC PROJECTIONS

First introduced by Auguste Choisy at the end of the 19th century, and the favored system of Le Corbusier and Theo van Doesburg, these projections were primarily produced for architects. This type of presentation gives a truer, three dimensional illusory understanding of the space and form of a building produced from a plan in scale, and has become very popular among architects.

CONVERGING PROJECTION SYSTEMS OR PERSPECTIVE

Perspective is vital with any technical drawing.

Perspective establishes a viewer's cone of vision and a context for objects contained within it. For example, a representation constructed on a picture plane has an established ground and horizon upon which objects can be placed in relation to it.

Perspective is distinct from the other drawing systems we have been looking at in that it creates an illusory yet real impression of space which employs an imaginary or observed view created purely through our observation of a subject. These two systems employ the same rules, although they arise from different creative roots and needs. The constructed perspective drawing is dominated by pure theory; the observed perspective drawing is from one view point. Perspective is a system of drawing that shows the illusion of three dimensional objects in a picture space. To produce a good perspective drawing one has to abide by a certain set of rules. To break these rules is to undo the illusion.

There are two common uses for perspective.

One is a perspective drawing constructed from our imagination and creative thoughts; the other is constructed from an understanding of planal recession and form.

ONE-POINT PERSPECTIVE

These are the basic rules that govern a one point perspective drawing, and it’s worth remembering that all lines that don’t appertain to the horizontal or the vertical axis will go back to or terminate at the perspective point that as been set up in this drawing.

1) Draw a square on your piece of paper just to the left or the right of the center of your piece of paper. Make sure that this square runs parallel to the edges of the paper.

2) Now draw a horizontal line across the piece of paper that travels through the square. This will be referred to as the horizon line, and in drawings from observation it can be referred to as your eye level.

3) Put a dot on the horizon line that sits on the other side of the paper to the square you have just drawn. This is now known as the vanishing point.

4) From the nearest top and bottom side of the square draw two straight lines that converge to the vanishing point. It’s important that extreme accuracy be observed in drawings of this type, as any slight mistakes can lead to distortion in the drawings.

Therefore, we would advise that beginners use a ruler for this part of the operation.

Now do the same from the top and bottom of the far end of the square. You will now have a drawing that resembles the example at the bottom of the page.

5) The next step is to place the back end of the box in. Do this by drawing in a vertical between the set of converging lines that we established in step 4. You need to place the line purely visually to make the illusion of the box. Place the line too far away and you produce an oblong lying down, and place the line to close and you produce an oblong standing up. So try to place the line so it makes the illusion of a cube.

6) Now draw two horizontal lines from the top and the bottom of this vertical line that you have established as the back of the box so as they join up with the two converging lines that run from the other side of the box to the vanishing point.

7) Now draw your final vertical line to establish the complete box in a one-point perspective.

Other examples of one-point perspective.

TWO-POINT PERSPECTIVE

1) In two-point perspective the drawing theory is very much the same. The difference is that the box or cube is set in a different orientation to the picture plane - instead of drawing a square in a facing position or running parallel to the picture plane, as we did in step one for the one point perspective drawing. We instead draw a vertical line just to the left or right of center.

2) Now put in the horizon line that, for the sake of this example, makes this line cut through the vertical line just above half way, and it should travel from one end of the paper to the other. For other practice examples, you can be diverse as to where you put the horizon line to experience the dynamics of perspective space.

3) Place two vanishing points on this line one at one edge of the paper and the other at the other edge of the paper.

4) As with step four of the one point perspective now draw a line from the top and the bottom of the vertical to the vanishing points on both sides. Again accuracy is paramount in this type of drawing.

5) You need now to visually place the back ends of the box in. Do this by placing a vertical line on one side of the original vertical so as it fits between the converging lines and it gives the appearance of being box shaped. Then repeat the process on the other side of the original vertical. You will now have created a box in a twisted orientation using two-point perspective.

6) As with the one-point perspective we need to create the illusion of the back of the box.

To do this draw two lines from the far left hand vertical to the vanishing point on the right-hand side this is shown as a dotted line in the example.

7) Now do the same from the vertical line on the right hand side. Draw two lines from the top and bottom of this vertical that will extend back to the vanishing point on the left hand side.

8) Finally, to finish off this drawing, all you need to do is to draw a vertical line between the two points at which they cross at the back of the box.

It’s possible, using the same process but changing the vanishing points, to create many boxes in different orientations on the same picture. This process described here has also been used in the observed perspective drawing, but the vanishing points and horizon line or eye level is found through calculation from our observation.

OBSERVED PERSPECTIVE

When drawing perspective from observation you must be able to accurately measure the angles. To start the drawing first establish your composition through your window mount.

Once you are happy with your position, establish the first major vertical in the composition. From this we can establish the horizon line or your eye level. It’s important that you keep this view constant while you are engaged in the drawing, otherwise you will experience distortion.

1) Start your drawing by assessing where you think your primary vertical is situated.

Establish it first, as you will be making your major perspective assessments from it. In the first example notice that the corner of the building in the row of houses is our main point of departure. So draw the vertical in position accurately first. In our drawing, we have now established where the corner of the house is and its height.

2) From that corner we can now begin to construct the perspective structure, and establish our eye level in the drawing. To do this we need to begin to assess the angles from the top and the bottom of the verticals. We can do this as we did for the posture lines, holding the pencil on the angle of the building and then transporting this angle to both the top and bottom of the vertical line. If you find this process particularly difficult, you can use a form of geometry to establish the angles. As with the example of the isometric drawing, we have established the 30° angle from using a 90° right angle. You can place a right angle to the vertical and then make an approximation as to the angle of your observation. When you feel confident that the angles of the lines you are about to draw are right, use a ruler to draw them to the point where they converge. At this point you will have established for that building or object one of its vanishing points.

It’s on this point also that the horizon line, or the eye level, is established. Now you can draw in the eye level line by simply making a horizontal line across your paper. There is a simple rule to remember for perspective. All the perspective lines that are above eye level will converge downward to a particular vanishing point on the horizon line. The same is true for those perspective lines that lie below the eye level, only they will converge upwards to the horizon line to a particular vanishing point. The accuracy of these measured angles is vital to the success of the drawing. Once you have the two converging lines from your first vertical, you can use them as guides to draw the rest of the building.

3) Decide how long the front face of the building is by looking back at the composition through the window mount. Put in a vertical line to denote the end of the building. This will

?t exactly between the two converging lines to give us the correct perspective. One can now do the same to the other side of the building, using the same process. However, you will notice that the perspective point on this occasion goes off the other side of the picture.

Don’t worry about this - it happens in most perspective drawings. In this detail we have extended the drawing perspectivally forward to draw the row of houses in the foreground.

This has been achieved by extending the perspective lines that come from the vanishing point on the horizon line, and then placing the vertical line in to denote the edge of the building.

4) Add the roof and the chimney pots so the building now has its basic structure.

5) Architectural information such as doors, windows and pavements are now put in.

6) We have now established the perspective basis of the composition. At this stage your drawing will lack expression or character. In this final stage we need to put in the elements that make the drawing more real, such as the van, the telegraph poles, the curving side of the road, and the other houses in the background. Finally, it all needs to be brought to life by working over the top of the perspective with free, gestural lines.

Observed perspective

FANTASY ARCHITECTURE Once you have gained a good knowledge of perspective you can emulate some of the great artists such as Perineasea who developed an amazing amount of fantasy architectural drawings. One can construct drawings that will lead the eye through a well-organized perspective or architectural space both for interiors or exteriors. It's a great way of flexing the imagination, and its fun.

LIGHT AND DARK SOFT PENCILS

Our first concern in this series of drawings is to create the fundamental form of the head, neck and shoulders if the light is coming from a fixed position on one side of the figure. In our example the light is coming from a fixed position on the left side. Once the fundamental form is established, you can concentrate on modeling the form through observation of how the shadows are cast and how they fall over the form. The figure here has the appearance of being constructed out of pure light.

TONAL DRAWING USING GRAPHITE OR VERY SOFT PENCIL

This is a tonal portrait drawing based in observation and it’s done using a very soft pencil - 8b.

The first concerns of this drawing are to create a sense of the fundamental form by observing the nature of the effects of light.

You will notice there is a very strong direct light that plays over the surface of the subject.

Step1) establish the basic form of the head by drawing an ovoid or an egg shape. Draw two lines for the neck, and then two arced lines for the shoulders. This will give you the basic outline for the form of the head. You can now initially place the basic areas of shadow in on one side of the head leaving the other side in the light. But you need to put some shadow on the outside of the head so as to pick up the edge of the form on the light side of the face.

Notice the free sketched way in which the tone has been placed down at this point in the drawing.

The light source picks out the fundamental form of the portrait.

The light becomes more distinct on how it plays across the surface of the form.

More tonal detail that brings out the character and more personal details.

What is so dramatic about this drawing is that it’s purely based in the observation of a light and dark effect that is known as Chiaroscuro.

Using a rubber in a directional motion gives an effect of shimmering light.

Step 2) now look at the person you are drawing and begin to pick out the other major areas of tone that exist on the head. It’s a mistake in this type of drawing to try and render features as this is a drawing that will bring you the likeness through the tonal rendition of the drawing.

Step 3) one can now begin to put the more detailed and subtler tones that in turn will start to imply the idea of a likeness of the subject.

Step 4) in this part of this final piece of the drawing we have used an eraser to bring back certain touches of light, just to enhance the atmospheric effect of the light.

LINEAR AND TONAL DRAWING USING GRAPHITE AND PLASTIC ERASER

This is a line and tone drawing of the female nude, but it’s a very different in concept to the last drawing. Whereas the last drawing was based in the analytical observation of light and how it falls on the form, this drawing is more of an expressive metaphor of the reality we are seeing.

1) In stage one of the examples we are drawing with a continuous line. That line is made by not taking your graphite off the paper until that section of the drawing is finished. This line is trying to establish the idea of form by following the contours of the form just as if you were actually drawing over the body itself and leaving a trace. You can also see from the illustration that the line is a free-roving type of line and it doesn't follow any predictable track.

2) Gestural tone is now placed over the linear drawing. This tonal application is based in observation so the model should be illuminated from a particular direction to give a definite sense of light and dark over the subject. The tone is applied in a quick gestured manner so as not to leave too much time to dwell on the consequences of the action. A gestured drawing is a drawing that is based in a response to what you are drawing rather than a calculated observation.

3) This stage may seem odd, as what we are about to do is to use an eraser to work over the whole drawing to take it back. Use the eraser in a diagonal direction and work it over all the drawing. This has the effect of bringing an atmospheric feel to the work and it sends the drawing back into the surface of the paper.

4) We can now begin to re-establish some of the tone and the line over the last section.

This gives the drawing a sense of atmosphere, drama, space and above all an expressive nature that holds the drawing together very cleverly as an expressive metaphor. There are examples of artists who work like this when drawing, artists like Aubach, Giacometti, and Rembrandt.

GESTURAL DRAWING WITH GRAPHITE

The next example is a line and tone drawing which derives much of its impact from knocking back with an eraser, a method that is particularly appropriate for figurative portrait work; you will find examples of its use in the drawings of Auerbach and Giacometti. You may find it a bit strange at first to reach a certain point and then have to rub out what you have just done, but after spending time practicing with the technique you will begin to see what can be achieved with it.

1) Establish the form using a continuous line (i.e. not taking the graphite from the paper while you draw) and following the shape of the figure. Imagine you are actually drawing your line on the person.

2) Place gestural tone over the line. Gauge the strength and extra dimension it can bring to your drawing.

3) Using the eraser in a diagonal direction, go over the drawing and rub out what you have just done.

This will set the portrait back into the picture plane and also give it atmosphere.

4) You can now re-establish the tone and some of the line, imparting to it a sense of drama, space and expression which will hold the drawing together.

CONSTRUCTED TONE LANDSCAPE AFTER CEZANNE

As well as using tone from observation to construct form or express an emotion we can also use a constructed form of tone to create the illusion of space. In this drawing after Cezanne the tonal drawing is a very formal one and is not very reliant upon observation. Although the basic composition comes from observation, the tone in the drawing is a means to an end, and informs us of a planal recession instead of the idea of volume. Cezanne in this picture seems to go out of his way to deny perspective and instead he emphasizes the horizontal and the vertical axis in the drawing.

He also uses a type of shading that functions on the edges of planes giving them a sense of planal placement in the picture.

He builds up the composition in a well orchestrated fashion that has a classical sense of balance and harmony to it.

The shading technique used in this drawing is focused on the inside and the outside edge of the objects in the composition. To create a recession you darken the edge you want to recede. To make a plane edge come forward against its neighboring edge you make it lighter.

GRAPHITE LANDSCAPE DRAWING

This drawing is very similar to the drawing using continuous line and tone to form the model. Only it’s a landscape sketch that is produced here in almost exactly the same way as the life drawing, using the same medium and the same methods. However, this is a sketch and a sketch is different to a drawing. A drawing is something that stands as a work of art in its own right whereas a sketch is meant as a piece of information for the artist to refer to at a later date as a piece of research. You should not undervalue the intrinsic qualities that sketches and doodles have.